This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the Italian Wikipedia. (April 2012) Don't speak Italian? Click here to read a machine-translated version of the Italian article. Click [show] on the right for instructions. Google's machine translation is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. After translating, {{Translated|it|Simuliidae}} must be added to the talk page to ensure copyright compliance. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation.

Black fly
Simulium yahense
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Diptera
Suborder:	Nematocera
Infraorder:	Culicomorpha
Superfamily:	Chironomoidea
Family:	Simuliidae Newman, 1834
Subfamilies
Parasimuliinae Simuliinae Genera Araucnephia Araucnephioides Archicnephia Austrosimulium Baisomyia Cnephia Cnesia Cnesiamima Crozetia Ectemnia Gigantodax Greniera Gydarina Gymnopais Kovalevimyia Levitinia Lutzsimulium Mayacnephia Metacnephia Paracnephia Parasimulium Paraustrosimulium Pedrowygomyia Prosimulium Simuliites Simulimima Simulium Stegopterna Sulcicnephia Tlalocomyia Twinnia Data related to Black fly at Wikispecies

A black fly (sometimes called a buffalo gnat, turkey gnat, or white socks) is any member of the family Simuliidae of the Culicomorpha infraorder. They are related to the Ceratopogonidae, Chironomidae, and Thaumaleidae. There are over 1,800 known species of black flies (of which 11 are extinct). Most species belong to the immense genus Simulium. Most black flies gain nourishment by feeding on the blood of mammals, including humans, although the males feed mainly on nectar. They are usually small, black or gray, with short legs, and antennae. They are a common nuisance for humans, and many U.S. states have programs to suppress the black fly population. They spread several diseases, including river blindness in Africa (Simulium damnosum and S. neavei) and the Americas (Simulium callidum and S. metallicum in Central America, S. ochraceum in Central and South America).

  Ecology

Eggs are laid in running water and the larvae attach themselves to rocks. Breeding success is highly sensitive to water pollution.^[1] The larvae use tiny hooks at the end of the abdomen to hold on to the substrate, using silk holdfasts and threads to move or hold their place. They have foldable fans surrounding their mouths. The fans expand when feeding, catching passing debris (small organic particles, algae, and bacteria). The larva scrapes the fan's catch into its mouth every few seconds. Black flies depend on lotic habitats to bring food to them. They will pupate under water and then emerge in a bubble of air as flying adults. They are often preyed upon by trout during emergence.

Adult males feed on nectar while females also feed on blood. Some species in Africa can range as far as 40 miles (64 km) from aquatic breeding sites in search of their blood meals, while other species have more limited range.

Different species prefer different host sources for their blood meal, which is sometimes reflected in the common name for the species. They feed in the daytime, preferably when wind speeds are low.

DEET-based insect repellents may attract greater numbers of black flies; permethrin products designed for ticks are effective but can only be applied to clothing, limiting their utility.^[2]

Black flies may be either univoltine or multivoltine depending on the species. The number of generations a particular pest species has each year tends to correlate with the intensity of human efforts to control those pests.

Work conducted at Portsmouth University by Bob Harris in 1986-1987^{[citation needed]} indicates that Simulium sp. create conditions within their mid guts that are highly acidic. This basic environment provides conditions that are ideally suited to bacteria that metabolise cellulose. Insects cannot metabolise cellulose independently, but the presence of these bacteria allow cellulose to be metabolised into basic sugars. This provides nutrition to the black fly larva as well as the bacteria. This symbiotic relationship indicates a specific adaptation, as fresh flowing streams could not provide sufficient nutrition to the growing larva in any other way.^{[citation needed]}

  Regional effects of black fly populations

• In the wetter parts of the northern latitudes of North America, including parts of Canada, New England, Minnesota, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, black fly populations swell from late April to July, becoming a nuisance to humans engaging in common outdoor activities, such as gardening, boating, camping, and backpacking. They can also be a significant nuisance in mountainous areas.
• Black flies are a scourge to livestock in Canada, causing weight loss in cattle and sometimes death.^[3]
• Pennsylvania, in the United States, operates the largest single black fly control program in North America. The program is seen as beneficial to both the quality of life for residents and to the state's tourism industry.^[4]
• The Blandford fly (Simulium posticatum) in England was once a public health problem in the area around Blandford Forum, Dorset, due to its large numbers and the painful lesions caused by its bite. It was eventually controlled by carefully targeted applications of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis.^[5] In 2010 there was a summer surge of insect bites blamed on the Blandford fly that required many who had been bitten to be treated in hospital.^[6]
• The New Zealand "sandfly" is actually a type of black fly.^[7]
• In parts of Scotland various species of Blackfly are a nuisance and bite humans,mainly between May and September. They are found mainly in mixed birch and juniper woodlands,and at lower levels in pine forests,moorlands and pasture. Bites are most often found on the head,neck and back. They also frequently land on legs and arms.

  Public health

Only four genera in the Simuliidae family, Simulium, Prosimulium, Austrosimulium, and Cnephia, contain species that feed on people, though other species prefer to feed on other mammals or on birds. Simulium, the type genus, is the most widespread and is a vector for several diseases, including river blindness.

Preferred timing and location of bites varies by species, though feeding always occurs during the day and is usually sited on areas of thinner skin, such as the nape of the neck or ears.

Mature adults can disperse tens or hundreds of kilometers from their breeding grounds in fresh flowing water, under their own power and assisted by prevailing winds, complicating control efforts. Swarming behavior can make outdoor activities unpleasant or intolerable, and can affect livestock production. During the eighteenth century the "Golubatz fly" (Simulium colombaschense) was a notorious pest in central Europe.^[8] Even non-biting clouds of black flies, whether composed of males or of species that do not feed on humans or do not require a blood meal before egg laying, can form a nuisance by swarming into orifices.

Bites are shallow and accomplished by first stretching the skin using teeth on the labrum and then abrading it with the maxillae and mandibles, cutting the skin and rupturing its fine capillaries. Feeding is facilitated by a powerful anticoagulant in the flies' saliva.

Itching and localized swelling and inflammation sometimes occurs at the site of a bite. Swelling can be quite pronounced depending on the species and the individual's immune response, and irritation may persist for weeks. Intense feeding can cause "Black Fly Fever", with headache, nausea, fever, swollen lymph nodes, and aching joints; these symptoms are probably a reaction to a compound in the flies' salivary glands. Less common severe allergic reactions may require hospitalization.^[9][10]

  River blindness

Black flies are central to the transmission of the parasitic nematode Onchocerca volvulus which causes Onchocerciasis, or "river blindness". It serves as the larval host for the nematode and acts as the vector by which the disease is spread. The parasite lives on human skin and is transmitted to the black fly during feeding.^[10] Simulium pruinosum bite is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of Fogo Selvagem, the endemic form of pemphigus foliaceus, a bullous dermatosis.^{[citation needed]}

  See also

• Gnat
• "The Black Fly Song", a song by Wade Hemsworth inspired by his experiences with them
• Use of DNA in forensic entomology

  Notes

  References

• Black Flies Fact Sheet from Ohio State University
• Extensive Simuliidae (black fly) Web pages at blackfly.org.uk
• Black fly species inventory

  External links

• Taxonomy and systematics of Simuliidae
• Diptera.info Gallery Images

  Bibliography

• Kurtak, D. C. 1973. Observations on filter feeding by the larvae of black flies. PhD thesis. Cornell Univ., Ithaca. 157 pp.
• Kurtak, D. C. 1978. Efficiency of filter feeding of black fly larvae. Can. J. ZooL 56:1608-23 110.